The managementinvolved in the normal conduct of business applies much of his time to interviewing. However, there is an awful lack of effort given to organized attempts at building improvements into this ancient process. Interviewing remains one of those activities which we think we know all about merely because we have been doing it since long; we have been comforted by habit. It seems apparent that a modest effort aimed at an analysis of our interviewing methods would harvest generous returns.
In the broad sense, interviewing is the process whereby individuals (usually two) exchange information. The individuals may be concerned with a job opening, a promotion, a special assignment, a product sale, information for intelligence purposes, a proposed merger, or other questions. The information exchanged need not be limited to evidences. In business, particularly, such products of an interview as meaning and understanding are oftentimes more significant than objective realistic statements.
Interviewing in the fashionable business setting invariably takes place in an atmosphere filled with a sense of urgency. The time allocated to the interview is necessarily limited. Consequently, a nondirective approach finds little application; it is necessary to use the guided interview in the vast mainstream of situations. This inherent time constraint sometimes brings about dysfunctional significances: the interviewer is so engrossed with budgeting his time that the content and the purpose of the interview are vitiated. Hence, we must define what we mean by an effective interview. For the purposes of this article, an effective interview is one that optimizes the perceived communication objectives of the individuals involved, with time as the principal constraint. We shall focus on research findings concerning:
- The appropriate kind of preparation for the interview.
- Value of such processes as having an outline of points to be covered and taking notes.
- Use (and misuse) of questions and questioning procedures.
- The kind and amount of control that the interviewer should exercise over the discussion.
- Analysis and assessment of information obtained.
Preparation & Planning
The lack of adequate planning for an interview is the greatest single mistake found in my studies of the interviewing process.1 All too often, the inexpert interviewer launches into a discussion only to find halfway through that his preparation is incomplete. A moderate amount of preplanning can easily avoid such unfortunate occurrences.
When the objective of the interview is well-known in advance, it is usually a good practice to allow the individual concerned sufficient time to prepare for the talk before the actual participation. By indicating, ahead of time and in writing, the points to be covered, the interviewer gives the interviewee an added advantage and reinforces the specific purpose of the session. Too often the expectations of the interviewee may be far different from those of the interviewer. This misunderstanding, if not corrected, can be terrible.
On the other hand, too much preplanning and detailing for an interview can be equally harmful. The interviewee may then develop conventionally correct answers or platitudes which, of course, reduce the informational content of the interview to virtually zero. In short, he needs a guide, a “bull”—but no more than that.
A written outline of important points to be covered is not necessarily an indication of firmness; rather, it reflects consideration for all parties concerned. When explained, it generates a feeling of confidence as well as fairness—particularly if two or more people are to be ranked in an assessment. The outline may even include typical questions in order to solicit comparable responses. Again, however, a warning against excess is needed: too much reliance on a programed questioning approach is often disconcerting to the interviewee and may lead to typecast answers. Ideally, of course, each question should be designed for the situation and the respondent.
In presenting information, a speaker allocates blocks of time to various items on his agenda. If no time limit is established, the demonstration can continue indefinitely. Even worse, the truly important information may never be told. This process takes place by dint of the normal human trait of retaining the most significant bits of information for the end. Therapists recognize this and are particularly attentive in the last ten minutes of the therapy session. Borrowing from this insight, the interviewer, although not able to set an hourly cycle as does the therapist, should try discreetly to indicate a time scale. This allows the interviewee to plan and to include relevant information which otherwise might be withheld. If the interview is terminated too abruptly, the probability of losing valuable information is very high.
A time limit can be suggested by quoting the next appointment or by noting, perhaps, a previously scheduled conference. Actions such as tapping—consciously or not—on one’s watch to indicate time are out of order, of course; so is sitting precipitously on the edge of the chair. Sometimes it may be in the best interest of both parties to set another date for anlengthy session or to plan on completing only one or two stages of progress at a time.
RapportBuilding
Certainly the general tone of the interview should be one of helpfulness and openness so as to minimize the instant barriers to upfront communication. In this connection it should be mentioned that privacy is a first precondition to good interviewing. An important element of this is freedom from distracting interruptions.
In order to create the critically important element of relationship with the interviewee, a genuine attempt should be made to put the interviewee at ease—especially in job application, promotion, or other interviews where significant differences in status exist. Unfortunately, sometimes this relationship is attempted by such awkwardness as, “Now, don’t be nervous!” or, “Relax!”
Normally, at the beginning of an interview an allowance should be made for the interviewee to adjust to the interview environment. The situation is new for the interviewee; it may be his or her first experience of this kind. Unless there is a specified adaptation period, the interviewee may be unable to reduce his or her level of nervousness, with the resulting loss of the entire session. Part of this adaptive process is acquaintance with the surroundings. It is an often overlooked truism that whenever an individual is placed in a strange situation, he becomes nervous.
Overcoming this fear is often a most difficult procedure. By explaining, for example, the need for commonplace objects such as pencil and note paper that are anxiety-provoking, the level of tension may be reduced. Also, it is well to remember that the manner and simple courtesies extended by the interviewer are greatly magnified in the eyes of the interviewee. Thus, a limited amount of pleasantries may be overlooked if they fulfill this useful purpose.
By doodle down significant bits of information, the interviewer can readily reconstruct what actually took place. The record assists with details which would be hard to recollect if not noted. The time that would be needed to fix them in mind without benefit of notes can be used to greater advantage listening and thinking. Then, too, writing down items compliments the interviewee; it means that his responses are considered important enough to be noted. It is a convenient reinforcing mechanism; it may even be used to guide the path of the interview.
Information of a picayune variety should naturally be avoided. Similarly, allowing the interviewee to relate too much information can be dangerous. Any unintentionally revealed facts or incidents may bring about severe nervousness feelings when he or she reflects on them later. Temptations to reveal information too freely should be sidestepped as lightly as possible so that continued relationship may be maintained. In addition, suspicion should be exercised at all times lest the interviewer become too emotionally involved in the exchange. Differences tend to aggravate planning for verbal counter-offensives with the result that the informational content is lost.
Guiding the conversation
The interviewee is overly sensitive to all reactions by the interviewer. Taking benefit of this, the interviewer may easily steer the conversation along the most creative channels. Small modulations in the voice give encouragement. By repeating phrases already expressed, one finds the respondent expanding with details on a relevant issue. Sometimes, merely restating the reply allows a time for reflection and quite natural expansion or clarification of a point perhaps lost in the first articulation. Phrasing a question by paraphrase it into a verbal one gives the interviewee a period to think through a definite response.
Support given by nodding is most effective. Other nonverbal means of interpretation assistance are equally significant. The use of semi verbal expressions of a worthless nature—for instance, “Umm…”—can prove most useful. Because such utterances provide no direct interpretation, they are received as the interviewee wants to receive them. He then emphasizes or magnifies the point as he sees fit.
A brief summary of information from time to time not only allows for clarity in the communication process but also gives the informant a reflect of just what has occurred. Modifications can be made easily by the interviewee once he hears what he has said. In the final stage, a precise statement of what was agreed on or of the general assumptions reached often allows for a reduction of misunderstanding.
When details or figures have been discussed, the summary can often be in the form of a written memo. If the interviewer wants to be sure of what the interviewee communicated or to check on whether the interviewee really understood the data discussed, he can ask him to write the memo.
Developing Information
The tools of the interviewer are his questions. They should be used with dispatch and yet with the utmost care. Sarcasm or vague humor should be avoided unless the interviewer is positive that the interviewee perceives them as such. Usually, the latter’s interpretation of such activity is entirely serious; he or she may respond at the time with a semblance of perceived humor, but the real reaction is often deep apprehension and doubt.
Through the thoughtful use of questions, the skilled interviewer not only obtains information but also guides the talk along productive lines. Leading questions or questions designed with built-in responses are usually not very effective. Similarly, the dual negative type of questioning is to be avoided as it tends to inducenervousness. To avoid slipping into such traps, even the best interviewer should review his questioning methods from time to time. Thus, self-analyzing by tape recording or by having a third person observe an interview for analytic purposes can prevent poor methods from developing into set procedures. This process may be extended to the use of video tape recordings with uniformly more significant results.
In a research project that concentrated on questioning methods, I examined the recordings of about 100 interviews held for the purpose of selecting job applicants, appraising executive performance, or counseling employees in their careers. One of the conclusions from this study is this: successful interviewers use at the outset of the interview a pattern of broad, general questions. Apparently this allows the respondent to answer with information which he feels is important, as well as providing him the opportunity to expand into areas that he deems to be of vital concern. Once this information is released, the interviewer can sharpen the focus with specific questions eliciting short answers. For example, the “yes or no” kind of question should be reserved for the final exploration of a subject, while queries such as “How do you feel about working with Software AG group?” might well obtain results most useful at the beginning of a particular subject.
Fear of silence
It seems that silence in our society is to be avoided at practically all times and all places. Unfortunately, this feeling affects the interview. Usually fear of silence is felt most by the inexpert interviewer. All too often he tends to put forth another question while the respondent is humblytrying to formulate his own thoughts into a logical reply—all just to keep the air filled with words.
The tendency to hurry questions and answers is compounded by the one-sided sense of time that people get during an interview. To understand the amount of alteration, one research group carried out such simple tests as stopping a conversation for a short period. Interviewers’ estimates of the period of silence magnified it by a factor of from 10 to 100!2 On the other hand, I find, when asking participants in an interview to estimate the time passed, invariably the interviewee underestimates the period. Consequently, the interviewer in particular should be cautious of pushing forward too quickly. In many instances, if he will permit another few seconds to elapse, he will obtain vital bits of information that would otherwise be lost or allowed to remain in a half-expressed state in the interviewee’s thought processes.
During these periods of silence, the interviewer may profitably spend his time thinking the question: “What is he really trying to tell me?” Often the content of the interview makes an incomplete story when analyzed later on. Not only may the words fall far short of the desired goal, but also they may convey misinterpretations. Allowances for the ever-present failures in semantics must constantly be made, and further interrogation conducted, in order that a clear approximation of the true meaning be obtained.
Art of listening
The often posed maxim to the effect that we hear what we wish to hear does not appear at first glance to be a profound statement. Yet it précises the process that lie behind poor listening methods. Individual biases and attitudes as well as role perceptions and typecasting all contribute to the phenomenon of selective awareness. Thus, in order to obtain the best possible information, it is necessary that one be aware of his own particular filters that tend to hamper if not prevent clear and relatively undistorted reception of information.
It is possible to hear at the rate of from 110 to 140 words per minute over sustained periods.3 The thinking or assumed projection rate is approximately seven times this figure. The result is a surplus of thinking time over listening time. The manner in which this surplus time is utilized differs, of course, with the individual. However, it is at this point that the interviewer tends to project his ideas into the interview process, thereby filtering out the interviewee’s replies.
One result is that he makes assumptions about the respondent and his information that are compatible not so much with the interviewee as with what the interviewer has already determined about the interviewee. Suffice it to say that it is altogether more rewarding to spend this extra time in formulating theories, which later can be confirmed or denied as more information is discovered, or in constructing a frame of reference for the on-going interview, which allows acquired information to be categorized easily as it is given.
Analyzing data
The information that is gathered should be approached and analyzed from two points of reference: the unbiased and the biased.
Unbiased View.
The unbiased category can be broken down into content and form:
1. Content—This term refers, of course, to the factual presentation—what is actually being said and whether or not it is dependable. The overview of the interview or the pattern of the total situation must be firmly grasped and then noted. In addition, it would seem that the following items are valuable in evaluating information—
- A response that is overwhelmingly conventional is likely to be suspect, owing to the great possibility of its being less than valid. For instance, in an employment interview, the response, “My boss didn’t like me,” is suspect as a cliché. Similarly, the response, “I quit that job because the pay was too low,” could be merely a platitude to satisfy the interviewer.
- If the respondent is impervious to interruption during the interview, then a measure of doubt is cast as to the kind of information the interviewee is relating. Such behavior generally indicates a need to cover all points in a predetermined pattern with such compulsion that, if the interviewee were interrupted, he would never be able to reassemble all the parts. Weaknesses in the “pseudo armor” should be investigated.
- A constant shifting of the subject or an extremely short attention span often denotes a degree of suspicion.
- Should gaps or illogical sequences be prevalent, care should be exercised to augment or to complete the lapses. The voids should be completed by direct interrogation, preferably later in the interview, to check continuity and to arouse a minimum of suspicion by the informant. Later validation by telephone may help with these questions.
- Conflicting times or facts as well as gaps or illogical sequences may indicate areas for careful attention or further penetration.
- Useful visual barometers of an unduly high anxiety level are such things as—
a. color of face
b. erratic body movements
c. varying eye contact
d. dryness of the mouth
e. pitch of the voice
f. excessive perspiration
2. Form—By form I mean the “how, when, and why” of the information. Words take on different meanings when differentiated along these lines. Form can be subdivided into verbal (what is heard) and into nonverbal (what is observed) content. Nonverbal expressions are perhaps the purest kind of information transmitted, since they are the most difficult to mask or disguise. By developing an awareness of and a sensitivity to such signals as when a certain fact was mentioned, what prompted the mention, how it was presented, and so forth, the skilled interviewer takes a most useful if not an essential step. Indeed, this awareness might well be extended to include the nonverbal transmissions of the interviewer himself.
Biased View.
In evaluating information from a biased point of view, the interviewer is attempting primarily to assess feelings and attitudes. It is often argued that these intangibles have no obvious place in an interview that takes place in a business environment. Yet, even though it is impossible to determine exactly how feelings and attitudes do influence the information transmitted, it is nonetheless crucially necessary that one be fully aware of the fact that these intangibles are powerful, active agents in creating opinions.
Closing the meeting
The final 10% of the interview is perhaps the most important, since the greatest amount of information per unit of time is generally exchanged during this time interval. In a series of taped interviews involving appliance sales and sales in which travel arrangements were a factor, it was found that the sales person often did not hear vital information offered toward the end of the interview or after the sale. This ignored information brought about regular misinterpretations, which, in turn, accounted for many later cancellations and troubled complaints. All of this could have been avoided if a reasonable amount of attention had been exercised so as to prevent a premature termination of the interview.
Part of the conclusion usually consists of a plan of action—something to be done or achieved by either or both parties. A clear, concise summary of this plan, as mentioned earlier, is a most useful method for achieving good results. The summary is helpful to both parties because it enables them to realize exactly what has been accomplished as well as to focus on a final concordance.
Follow-Up
I have observed in my studies that a general failing of interviewers is their inability to document just what occurred in a talk. In their usual—often planned—hurry to get to the next interview, they neglect valued notes. This impatience in many cases is merely behavior resulting from a self-satisfying need to prove to themselves that they are busy.
Adequate note of significant events, impressions, and agreed-on information are of great value in rebuilding the interview at a later date and in providing aoutline for planning the next session. By documenting a series of events, one is able to see things which, if merely left to the delicate human memory, may fuse into meaningless, disconnected scenes in a view of many human happenings. To be sure, too much recorded information may well lead to a surplus of data, a situation I have also observed in several interviewing offices, but this extreme is easily prevented if good judgment is implemented.
Another benefit of effective documentation is that it offers the opportunity to reflect on a previous event. By reviewing and considering this information, one can oftentimes discover faults and errors in method and improve his approach. Without such specific means for learning, the same mistakes tend to become routinized until the point is reached where they become, accidentally, an integral part of the interviewer’s method.
But of all types of learning, self-learning is the most appreciated. Without a doubt the most important key to effective interviewing is identifying how one’s own attitudes and biases affect the information he acquires.
So often the interviewer is content to come up with “50-cent piece” of helpful information about methods, personality, and so forth. Actually, however, the real key to effective interviewing lies closer to his own self. Once discovered, it can help him attain truly effective results of a professional nature.